Introduction: The successful outcome from metal-on-metal hip resurfacing is partly dependent on the restoration of the natural biomechanics of the hip joint. Valid measurement of the geometry of the reconstructed hip is challenging using plain radiographs. CT is more accurate and precise yet rarely used to assess hip geometry. Our aims were 1) to quantify the agreement between radiographic and CT measurement of horizontal femoral offset (HFO); 2) to determine the relationship between HFO and patient gender and size; and 3) To compare HFO of the reconstructed hip to the contralateral hip.

Method: We used plain radiograph and CT data from 42 patients (23 male and 19 female) from a consecutive series with unilateral metal-on-metal hip resurfacings. We measured HFO of both hips (component and contralateral) using plain radiographs (with PACS) and CT (with Robin 3D software). Pelvic width and radial head sizes were measured on CT. Measurements were made in triplicate by 2 observers.

We graded the contralateral hip for severity of joint space narrowing on plain radiographs.

Results: There was considerable disagreement between CT and plain radiographs for HFO. HFO was statistically different between genders (p=0.0004). HFO correlated with femoral head radius (0.57, p=0.0002), but not patient size (for height (0.29, p=0.13), or pelvic width (0.25, p=0.11). There was a wide range of HFO of the contralateral hips that was comparable to the reconstructed hip.

Conclusion: To our knowledge this is the first study to show the importance of measuring HFO using CT. HFO was found to be correlated to gender and femoral head radius, but not with any other parameters of patient size. The wide range of offset was considerably greater than is available from current total hip replacement designs. Hip resurfacing may overcome this.

Introduction: Unicompartmental knee Arthroplasty (UKA) is a commonly used and accepted treatment for Osteoarthritis (OA) in the medial compartment. How-ever, despite some good results¹ there is still a reluctance to use this procedure in the lateral compartment for the same indications, as the procedure is considered technically difficult, and not as successful². This study reports the clinical outcome of lateral UKAs in comparison with medial UKAs, TKAs and a normal population group using a knee score designed to highlight the shortcomings of TKA³.

Methods: 20 consecutive patients over 2 years following lateral UKA were functionally assessed. They were compared with 3 groups of 20 age and sex matched patients: those who had undergone medial UKA or TKA in the same time period, or normal controls from an upper limb clinic. Clinical function was assessed at least 2 years postoperatively, using the ‘total knee questionaire’³. This consists of 55 scaled multiple choice questions. The score is derived from the product of three scales: the importance of a specific activity, the frequency with which it is undertaken, and the ease with a patient can perform it.

Results: 90% of the patients reported that they were either satisfied or very satisfied with their lateral UKA, with 95% of the patients in the medial UKA group and 75% in the TKA group reaching this level of satisfaction. The average Composite Score for the lateral UKA group was significantly better compared with the TKA group (p < 0, 05). (Kneeling – (5,72/4,45), Gardening – (7,32/5,18), Pivoting – (7,83/6,78) and Walking with heavy bags (8,2/5,97)). The Total Composite Score was significantly better (p< 0, 05) in Patients after lateral UKA (7,14) compared to patients who underwent TKA (5,99). No statistically significant differences in the Total Composite Score was found between both the lateral & medial UKA patients taken as a single group compared with the control group.

Conclusion: Lateral Unicompartmental Knee Arthroplasty achieves superior knee function in comparison to Total Knee Arthroplasty, so is worth considering as an option in for early OA of the lateral compartment.

Radiological measurements are an essential component of the assessment of outcome following knee arthroplasty. However, plain radiographic techniques can be associated with significant projectional errors because they are a two-dimensional (2D) representation of a three-dimensional (3D) structure. Angles that are considered within the target zone on one film may be outside that zone on other films. Moreover, these parameters can be subject to significant inter-observer differences when measured. The aim of our study therefore was to quantify the variability between observers evaluating plain radiographs following Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty.

Twenty-three observers, made up of Orthopaedic Consultants and trainees, were asked to measure the coronal and sagittal alignment of the tibial and femoral components from the post-operative long-leg plain radiograph of a Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty. A post-operative CT scan using the low dose Imperial knee protocol was obtained as well and analysed with 3D reconstruction software to measure the true values of these parameters. The accuracy and spread of the pain radiographic measurements were then compared with the values obtained on the CT.

On the femoral side, the mean angle in coronal alignment was 1.5° varus (Range 3.8, SD 1, min 0.1, max 3.9), whereas the mean angle in sagittal alignment was 8.6° of flexion (Range 7.5, SD 1.5, Min 3.7, Max 11.2). The true values measured with CT were 2.4° and 11.0° respectively. As for the tibial component, the mean coronal alignment angle was 89.7° (Range 11.6, SD 3.3, Min 83.8, Max 95.4), and the mean posterior slope was 2.4° (Range 8.7, SD 1.6, Min -2, Max 6.7). The CT values for these were 87.6° and 2.7° respectively.

We conclude that the plain radiographic measurements had a large scatter evidenced by the wide ranges in the values obtained by the different observers. If only the means are compared, the plain radiographic values were comparable with the true values obtained with CT (that is; accuracy was good) with differences ranging from 0.3° to 2.4°. The lack of precision can be avoided with the use of CT, particularly with the advent of low-dose scanning protocols.

We carried out metal artefact-reduction MRI, three-dimensional CT measurement of the position of the component and inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis of cobalt and chromium levels in whole blood on 26 patients with unexplained pain following metal-on-metal resurfacing arthroplasty.

MRI showed periprosthetic lesions around 16 hips, with 14 collections of fluid and two soft-tissue masses. The lesions were seen in both men and women and in symptomatic and asymptomatic hips. Using three-dimensional CT, the median inclination of the acetabular component was found to be 55° and its positioning was outside the Lewinnek safe zone in 13 of 16 cases. Using inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry, the levels of blood metal ions tended to be higher in painful compared with well-functioning metal-on-metal hips.

These three clinically useful investigations can help to determine the cause of failure of the implant, predict the need for future revision and aid the choice of revision prostheses.

A Prospective, randomised controlled trial demonstrates superior outcomes using an active constraint robot compared with conventional surgical technique in unicompartmental knee arthroplasty (UKA). Computer assistance should extinguish outliers in arthroplasty, with robotic systems being able to execute the preoperative plan with millimetre precision.

We used the Acrobot system to deliver tailor made surgery for each individual patient. A total of 27 patients (28 knees) awaiting unicompartmental knee arthroplasty were randomly assigned to have the operation performed either with the assistance of the Acrobot or conventionally. CT scans were obtained with coarse slices through hips and ankles and fine slices through the knee joint. Preoperative 3D plans were made and transferred to the Acrobot system in theatre, or printed out as a conventional surgical aid. Accurate co-registration was confirmed, prior to the surfaces of the femur and tibia being milled. The outcome parameters included measurements of the American Knee Society (AKS) score and Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis (WOMAC) index. These measurements were performed pre-operatively and at six, 18 weeks, and 18 months post-operatively. After 18 months two UKA out of the conventional trial (n =15) had been revised into a total knee replacement (TKA), whereas there were no revisions in the Acrobot trial group (n = 13).

Using an active constrained robot to assist the surgeon was significantly more accurate than the conventional surgical technique. This study has shown a direct correlation between accuracy and improvement in knee scores at 6, 18 weeks and 18 months after surgery. At 18 months there continues to be a significant improvement in the knee scores with again a marked correlation between radiological accuracy and clinical outcome with higher accuracy leading to better function based on the WOMAC and American Knee Society Score.

Whilst computer assistance enables more accurate arthroplasty to be performed, demonstrating this is difficult. The superior results of CAOS systems have not been widely appreciated because accurate determination of the position of the implants is impossible with conventional radiographs for they give very little information outside their plane of view.

We report on the use of low dose (approximately a quarter of a conventional pelvic scan), low cost CT to robustly measure and demonstrate the efficacy of computer assisted hip resurfacing. In this study we demonstrate 3 methods of using 3D CT to measure the difference between the planned and achieved positions in both conventional and navigated hip resurfacing.

The initial part of this study was performed by imaging a standard radiological, tissue equivalent phantom pelvis. The 3D surface models extracted from the CT scan were co-registered with a further scan of the same phantom. Subsequently both the femoral and acetabular components were scanned encased in a large block of ice to simulate the equivalent Hounsfield value of human tissue. The CT images of the metal components were then co-registered with their digital images provided by the implant manufactures. The accuracy of the co-registration algorithm developed here was shown to be within 0.5mm.

This technique was subsequently used to evaluate the accuracy of component placement in our patients who were all pre-operatively CT scanned. Their surgery was digitally planned by first defining the anterior pelvic plane (APP), which is then used as the frame of reference to accurately position and size the wire frame models of the implant. This plan greatly aids the surgeon in both groups and in the computer assisted arm the Acrobot Wayfinder uses this pre-operative plan to guide the surgeon.

Following surgery all patients, in both groups were further CT scanned to evaluate the achieved accuracy. This post-operative CT scan is co-registered to the pre-operative CT based plan. The difference between the planned and achieved implant positions is accurately computed in all three planes, giving 3 angular and 3 translational numerical values for each component.

Further analysis of the CT generated results is used to measure the implant intersection volume between the pre-operatively planned and achieved positions. This gives a single numerical value of placement error for each component. These 3D CT datasets have also been used to quantify the volume of bone resected in both groups of patients comparing the simulated resection of the planned position of the implant to that measured on the post-operative CT.

This study uses 3D CT as a surrogate outcome measure to demonstrate the efficacy of CAOS systems.

Last year at CAOS UK we reported on the development of the Acrobot® Navigation System for accurate computer-assisted hip resurfacing surgery. This paper describes the findings of using the system in the clinical setting and includes the improvements that have been made to expedite the procedure. The aim of our system is to allow accurate planning of the surgery and precise placement of the prosthesis in accordance with the plan, with a zero intra-operative time penalty in comparison to the standard non-navigated technique.

The system uses a pre-operative CT-based plan to allow the surgeon to have full 3D knowledge of the patient’s anatomy and complete control over the sizes and positions of the components prior to surgery.

At present the navigation system is undergoing final clinical evaluation prior to a clinical study designed to demonstrate the accuracy of outcome compared with the conventional technique. Whilst full results are not yet available, this paper describes the techniques that are being used to evaluate accuracy by comparing pre-operative CT-based plans with post-operative CT scans, and gives initial results.

This approach provides a true measure of procedure outcome by measuring what was achieved against what was planned in 3D. The measure includes all the sources of error present within the procedure protocol, therefore these results represent the first time that the outcome of a navigated orthopaedic procedure has been measured accurately.

Surgeons need to be able to measure angles and distances in three dimensions in the planning and assessment of knee replacement. Computed tomography (CT) offers the accuracy needed but involves greater radiation exposure to patients than traditional long-leg standing radiographs, which give very little information outside the plane of the image.

There is considerable variation in CT radiation doses between research centres, scanning protocols and individual scanners, and ethics committees are rightly demanding more consistency in this area.

By refining the CT scanning protocol we have reduced the effective radiation dose received by the patient down to the equivalent of one long-leg standing radiograph. Because of this, it will be more acceptable to obtain the three-dimensional data set produced by CT scanning. Surgeons will be able to document the impact of implant position on outcome with greater precision.

We used computer tomography (CT) to measure the outcome of knee-arthroplasty in our prospective double-blind randomised controlled study of our active constraint robotic system ACROBOT.

All patients in our trial had pre-operative CT scan and proprietary software used to plan the size, position and orientation of the implants. Post operatively a further CT scan was performed and measurement studies performed using 3 different methods of manipulating the CT dicom data.

Method 1, a quick and simple method of implant assessment that measures the varus-valgus orientation of the implants relative to the axes of the long bones

Two landmarks each are used to define the individual mechanical axis for both the femur and tibia, for consistency these landmarks are the very ones used in the planning stage on the pre-operative CT.

Landmarks are then placed on the implants in order to measure their tilt relative to the mechanical axes. An appropriate Hounsfield threshold (2800) was used to image the metal components. The angle between the individual mechanical axis and the prosthetic component was calculated.

Method 2, detailed and accurate comparisons between the planned and achieved component positions in 3D are made. Co-registration of the precisely planned CT based models with surface models from the post-op scan gives real measurements of implant position enabling the measurement of the accuracy of component in an all six degrees of freedom giving both translation and rotation errors in all three planes.

The process of alignment was achieved by surface-to-surface registration. An implementation of the iterative closest point algorithm was used to register matching surfaces on the objects to be registered. A polygon mesh of the implant, provided by the manufacturer, defined the surface shape of each size of implant. This was used both to define the planned position and to register to the post-operative scan. Method 3, in this study we quantified post-operative error in knee arthroplasty using one value for each component whilst retaining 3D perspective.

The position of the prosthetic components in the post-op scan is calculated and individual transformation matrix computed which is matched to the transformation matrices for the planned components.

The pre-operative CT based component positions were co-registered to the post-operative CT scan and values for the intersection (volumetric) between the digitised images (both planned and achieved) were calculated. Both the co-registered femoral and tibial component’s intersection was quantified with software packages supporting Boolean volume analysis

Method 1, the sum of the two, independently measured, angles allows an estimate of the post-operative alignment of the load bearing axes in the two bones.

Method 2, 3D CT allows precise measurements of the achieved position for each component in all three planes. Six values, three angular and three translational, define the achieved component position relative to the planned position.

Method 3, the greater the percentage intersection between the planned and achieved images, the greater the accuracy of the surgery. Owing to the shape of the components (large articular surface) large intersections demonstrate more accurate reconstruction of the joint line.

In the recent past the lack of a sufficiently accurate tool to plan and measure the accuracy of component placement has resulted in an inability to detect and study radiological and functional outliers and hence the hypnotised relationship between prosthetic joint placement and outcome has been difficult to prove.

CT offers us the ability to accurately describe the actual position and deviation from plan of component placement in knee arthroplasty. Whilst X-ray has the intrinsic problems of perspective distortion magnification errors and orientation uncertainties CT can be used to define ‘true’ planes for two dimensional (2D) measurements and permits the comparison in three dimensions (3D) between the planned and achieved component positions.

Accurately planning the intervention and precisely measuring outcome in computer assisted orthopaedic surgery (CAOS) is essential for it permits robust analysis of the efficacy of these systems.

We demonstrate the use of low dose computer tomography (CT) radiation for both the planning and outcome measurement of robotic and conventionally performed knee arthroplasty.

Studies were initially performed on a human phantom pelvis and lower limb. The mAs (milliampere seconds) were varied from 120 to 75 at the pelvis and from 100 to 45 for both the knee and ankle whilst keeping the kV (kilovolt) between 120 and 140. Image quality was evaluated at the different doses.

The volumes scanned were defined on the scout film; they included the whole femoral head (0.5cm above and below the head), 20cm at the knee (10cm on either side of the joint line) and 5cm at the ankle (the distal tibia and the talus). Effective dose (mSv) was calculated using two commercially available software packages. This protocol was subsequently used to image patients in our prospective double-blind randomised controlled study of our active constraint robotic system ACRO-BOT.

With the reduction in the mA and scanned volume the effective dose was reduced to 0.761 mSv in females and 0.497 mSv in males whilst maintaining a sufficient image resolution for our purposes. We found that a mAs of 80 for the hip joint, 100 for the knee and 45 for the ankle was sufficient for imaging in both pre-op planning and pos-operative assessment in knee arthroplasty. This contributed on an average effective dose to the hip of 0.61 mSv, the knee 0.120 mSv and to the ankle 0.0046 mSv.

The results of our study show that we have considerably reduced the effective dose (0.8 mSv) to one third of the Perth Protocol (2.5mSv) by reducing the areas of the body scanned and adjusting the mA for the various parts of the body whist maintaining the x, y and z axis throughout the scan. The areas between the knee, hip and ankle that were not exposed to radiation are not strictly necessary for the planning of knee arthroplasty, but it is essential that the leg does not move during the scanning process. In order to prevent this leg was placed in a radiolucent splint. For post op three dimensional (3D) assessments only the knee component of the protocol is necessary.

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of the Acrobot^® Sculptor system in achieving a surgical plan for implantation of unicompartmental knee prostheses, compared with conventional surgery. The Acrobot^® Sculptor is a novel hands-on medical device, consisting of a high speed cutter mounted on a robotic device which the surgeon holds and directs.

A prospective, randomised, double-blind (patient and evaluator), controlled versus conventional surgery study was undertaken and has been fully reported in Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (British), 88-B.

All (13 out of 13) of the Acrobot^® cases were implanted with tibio-femoral alignment in the coronal plane within ±2° of the planned position, while only 40% (six out of 15) of the conventionally performed cases achieved this level of accuracy.

There was also a significant enhancement in the extent of post-operative improvement, as measured by American Knee Society (AKS) Scores at six weeks, in the cases implanted with the Acrobot^®. The difference between type of surgery is statistically significant (p=0.004, Mann-Whitney U test). Operating time (skin to skin) is higher in Acrobot treated subjects, but the difference between the two types of surgery fails to reach significance.

The Acrobot^® System was found to significantly improve both accuracy and short term outcome in this investigation. By permitting the creation of bone surfaces that can be machined by means other than an oscillating saw, the Acrobot^® System paves the way for novel implant designs to be developed, facilitating bone conserving arthroplasty in the knee, hip and spine with a new generation of even less invasive but more reliable procedures.

We performed a prospective, randomised controlled trial of unicompartmental knee arthroplasty comparing the performance of the Acrobot system with conventional surgery. A total of 27 patients (28 knees) awaiting unicompartmental knee arthroplasty were randomly allocated to have the operation performed conventionally or with the assistance of the Acrobot. The primary outcome measurement was the angle of tibiofemoral alignment in the coronal plane, measured by CT. Other secondary parameters were evaluated and are reported.

All of the Acrobot group had tibiofemoral alignment in the coronal plane within 2° of the planned position, while only 40% of the conventional group achieved this level of accuracy. While the operations took longer, no adverse effects were noted, and there was a trend towards improvement in performance with increasing accuracy based on the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index and American Knee Society scores at six weeks and three months. The Acrobot device allows the surgeon to reproduce a pre-operative plan more reliably than is possible using conventional techniques which may have clinical advantages.

We report the use of CT with 3D reconstruction to determine the accuracy of knee arthroplasty.

Method Pre- and post-operative CT scans have been performed in a cohort of 20 total and unicompartmental knee replacements in fine detail of hips, knees and ankles but with minimal dosage elsewhere.

Three different methods have been used to measure the position of the implant.

‘True’ anterior posterior views are reconstructed from the post-operative CT data and tibiofemoral angles computed.

Results Alignment can be determined within 0.5° using method 1. With the addition of method, 2 rotational malalignment can be computed. With method 3 a transformation matrix is provided, showing the position in space of the prosthesis relative to the pre-op plan, with accuracy of under 0.5 mm. Poor function is explained.

Conclusion We have used 3-D reconstructions from CT scans and digital measurements to compute the precise position of the implant in the bone. Showing where the implant lies in 3D space explains accurately why poor results have occurred. CT based planning has been used to ensure that the bone cuts are planned correctly. Postoperative CT scans confirm that if the plan is achieved, function will be good.

The accuracy of prosthesis implantation is closely related to their function and longevity; we report the development of an active constraint robot for minimally invasive unicompartmental knee arthroplasty (UKA) using CT and knee scoring.

Method: Pre and postoperative CT scans are performed. Pre-op scan CT scans were used to plan the precise position of implants on the bones. The femoral and tibial bone cuts were then generated, together with the software boundaries that constrain the surgeon. This plan was then used to define the cutting planes of the ‘Acrobot’ active constraint device that we have developed.

The Postoperative CT scan was compared with the preoperative plan. The distance of the joint line from the hip and ankle joint, and its angulation and rotation were compared to the preoperative plan. In addition, the position of the implants relative to their planned position has been computed.

Results: No significant complications have been encountered. Using the postoperative CT scans, in no case is the implant more than 2mm or 2 degrees from the planned position.

Conclusions: The Acrobot system for UKA has completed its preliminary trial satisfactorily. It provides a hands-on operation but with robotic levels of accuracy, through a minimally invasive approach. By abolishing outliers, it improves outcomes in UKA replacement.

The Acrobot®, an active constraint “hands-on” robotic system, gives navigation cues to the surgeon, and also assists him in the surgery, using active software constraints if he tries to depart from the preoperative plan. It has just entered clinical trials. We report the first 5 cases.

The Acrobot® system for precision total knee arthroplasty comprises the following components:

1. A CT-based planning system

a gross positioning device with separate brakes and encoders, locked off for safety during the procedure,

4. The Acrobot’s software which:

imports the preoperative plan,

Each patient’s knee scores were monitored and postoperative CT scan was compared with the preoperative plan.

Seven robot assisted arthroplasties have been performed. No significant complications have been encountered. The Knee and Womac Scores show that the procedure is safe and comparable to conventional surgery in the early postoperative period. The envelope of error on postoperative CT scans has been within the accuracy of the method of measurement, at < 1 mm and < 10 without the outliers which haunt every clinical series.

The Acrobot® system for total knee arthroplasty has completed its preliminary trial satisfactorily. It provides a handson operation but with robotic levels of accuracy. It is suitable for conventional open surgery, but its real place will be in the arena of minimally invasive unicondylar knee arthroplasty, hip arthroplasty and resurfacing, and in the spine, where active constraint will prevent potentially dangerous surgical errors.